Transition Counseling Services

Comparisons of Men and Women With Respect to Alcohol

Both biological and environmental issues impact women’s consumption of alcohol. Alcohol dependence progresses more quickly in women than in men, a process called the “telescoping effect.” This results in women developing more physical problems within fewer years of drinking onset (Blume, 1988).

Men and women metabolize alcohol differently. The most noteworthy difference is that smaller concentrations of alcohol produce intoxication in women compared to men, even when body sizes are comparable.

A number of physiological explanations exist for this gendered alcohol phenomenon, including:

• differential weight/body mass
• chemical absorption rates
• stomach enzymes
• ratios of body fat to water (Plant, 1997).

The literature suggests that one explanation for disproportionate gender intoxication (based on equal intake) is that, even when equal body weight is similar, men have more body water content than women. This results in women having higher concentration levels of alcohol circulating in the blood (Mumenthaler, Taylor, O’Hara, & Yesavage, 1999).

Frezza , di Padova, Pozzato, Terpin, Baraona, and Lieber (1990) have reported that the initial process of biochemically breaking down alcohol in the system may be hampered among women. This is due to lower levels among women (as compared to men) of the primary enzyme, alcohol dehydrogenase, found in the stomach and small intestine. This gastric activity, often referred to as the ‘first-pass metabolism’ has been found to be notably reduced in alcoholic women (Frezza et al., 1990).

The study of biological differences between male and female drinking has focused not only on the metabolic processes involved in alcohol use, but also on the biological consequences. For example, women demonstrate an increased vulnerability to liver damage from alcohol consumption (Lieber, 1997). A recent review of the literature on gender differences reported some evidence that women, compared to men, may present with increased alcohol-related problems relative to cognitive performance (Mumenthaler et al., 1999). Another area of significant concern is the potentially damaging effect of alcohol use related to childbearing potential. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy has been linked with an increased risk of birth defects, low birth weight, and cognitive and motor deficits in children (Straussner, 1994). Children with birth defects from fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects may present with behaviors that require considerably enhanced parenting skills. This specialized parenting may be exceedingly difficult for women who are already struggling with problems associated with alcohol use, abuse, or dependence.

Other research endeavors have examined the environmental factors that place women at a greater risk for alcohol-related difficulties. Alcoholic women are more likely than their male counterparts to come from alcoholic families and to have a greater history of loss experiences (Gomberg, 1976; Gobmerg, 1980). In addition, addicted women have high rates of childhood physical and sexual abuse, as well as other forms of victimization experiences (Clayson, Berkowitz, & Brindis, 1995; Miller, Downs, & Testa, 1993). In one study, 66% of women in alcohol treatment reported a history of childhood sexual abuse compared with 35% of women in a general population sample (Miller et al., 1993). Alcoholic women also report higher rates of partner violence (87% vs. 28%) than other women (Downs, Miller, & Patek, 1993).

Women with alcohol problems have fewer social and economic resources as compared to alcoholic men (Beckman & Amaro, 1986; Gomberg & Nirenberg, 1993). Problem drinking women are also more likely to be divorced single parents, and to have lower income than men (Beckman & Amaro, 1984; Beckman & Amaro, 1986; Gomberg & Nirenberg, 1993). Alcohol-related fatal crashes increased since 1982 for girls aged 15-20, while dropping for boys (Center for Behavioral Health, 2002). Women’s alcohol problems are significant because of the numbers of women involved, and their social roles and contexts which are affected (Smyth & Miller, 1997).

Sources of Treatment Discrepancy

Women are more likely than men to be admitted to treatment for “harder drugs” like cocaine, stimulants, and heroin/opiates, and are also less likely than men to be admitted for alcohol and marijuana-63% of men are admitted for alcohol/marijuana compared to 47% of women admitted for alcohol/marijuana (DASIS, 2001).

Research has revealed that past victimization places alcohol-abusing women at an increased risk of experiencing other, co-morbid psychiatric problems (Finkelhor & Browne, 1986). In general, community women with alcohol problems are at a greater risk for psychiatric disorders (19% vs. 7%) than are women who report no alcohol problems (Helzer & Pryzbeck, 1988). The most common disorders reported in this research were depression and anxiety. Rates of dual disorders-mental health and addiction-are generally higher in treatment settings (20-50%) compared to community-based settings (Zimberg, 1993). In addition, younger alcoholic women under age 40 were found to attempt suicide almost five times more frequently than nonalcoholic women (Gomberg, 1989).

Other risk factors for alcoholic women, as compared to nonalcoholic women, are low self-esteem and guilt (Colton 1979; Reed, 1985), stigmatization (Bepko, 1991), and social withdrawal (Turnbull & Gomberg, 1991). These compounding problems contribute to both women’s avoidance of treatment services and the lack of an “appropriate fit” between women’s treatment needs and treatment program characteristics.

Another barrier to possible treatment options for addicted women is inconsistent and fluctuating social policy. Child protection laws and regional child welfare practices may place women at risk for prosecution (Hawk, 1994). Whether reality or perception, this vulnerability deters many woman from utilizing addiction treatment programs and from seeking prenatal health care (Hawk, 1994; Merrick, 1993).

Screening and Assessment Issues

The lack of social support for women with alcohol problems, possible legal repercussions, and the increased likelihood of mental health problems make the recognition and identification of alcohol disorders problematic. The use of screening instruments is a first-level attempt to identify potential alcohol problems in women. Their use is viewed as a process that leads to early diagnosis of, and intervention with, alcohol-related issues (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 1993). The Addiction Severity Index (ASI) currently has a form specific to women (ASI-F).

Another of the few screening instruments validated on women is the TWEAK (Russell, 1994):

The TWEAK is scored with a seven-point scale. Two points are attributed to a woman who reports that she can “hold” more than five drinks without passing out (Tolerance), and a positive response to the “worry” question scores two points. The last three questions score one point for each positive response. A total score of three or more points indicates a woman who is likely to be a “heavy/problem drinker” (Allen & Columbus, 1995).

A positive screen for alcohol use problems should lead to further screening and assessment related to current partner violence, child maltreatment, and possible current and past sexual and physical abuse. Research suggests that multiple, specific questions are more effective in establishing reports of childhood sexual abuse than are single, general questions (Peters, Wyatt, & Finkelhor, 1986). It has also been suggested that women are more likely to respond positively to female interviewers, given the sensitive nature of sexual abuse issues (Miller et al., 1993) and the gendered nature of intimate partner violence experiences.

It is important for clinicians consistently to assess for past and present psychiatric disorders, and the part they play in alcohol use problems and women’s role functioning (Brown et al., 1995; Davidson, 1995; Sederer, 1990). Women with alcohol problems should also be evaluated for issues involving poor self-esteem, family relationships, and parenting concerns that may present significant barriers to successful treatment outcomes.

Treatment Issues

Personalized psychoeducational interventions concerning the negative and harmful aspects of alcohol abuse and dependence can be helpful to motivate women to reduce their alcohol intake or to become abstinent. In particular, women appear to have better outcomes than men to moderate drinking treatment programs and programs that provide choice of treatment goals (Sanchez-Craig,, Leigh, Spivak, & Lei, 1989; Sanchez-Craig, Spivak, & Davila, 1991).

Couples and family system counseling may be beneficial for the family. It may be vital to treat individual family members or family subsystems, particularly the children (Logue & Rivinus, 1991). Among adult children of problem drinking mothers, one study found that 40% of daughters and 36% of sons reported a history of childhood sexual abuse. Rates of alcohol and other drug problems were 40% and 68%, respectively (Miller et al., 1996). Varied treatment approaches can address issues specific to alcoholic women. Counseling that deals with low self-esteem, such as assertiveness training and coping skills development, has been promising (Reed 1985). Given the high rate of physical and sexual abuse among problem drinking women, it would be beneficial to incorporate specialized treatment for trauma survivors into any program that serves addicted women (Evans & Sullivan, 1995).

Working through problems related to having an alcoholic partner is an especially important intervention (Zelvin, 1997). Addressing these problems within support groups may provide additional strength through positive feedback and the reduction of personal stigmatization. Specialized self-help groups for women, like Women for Sobriety, can be especially useful (Kaskatus, 1996). Women only meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous can also fulfill many of these needs. Parenting groups are also recommended to increase parental self-concepts and effective parenting skills (VanBremen and Chasnoff, 1994). Due to issues of guilt and shame, special parenting programs targeting addicted mothers should be considered.

Whether women should be in women-specific vs. mixed gender groups is an issue of debate (McCrady and Raytek, 1993, Vannicelli, 1984). An evaluation of women-only vs. mixed gender addiction groups found that women identified several issues that they would discuss only in women’s groups, including guilt regarding being an inadequate mother (Kauffman, Dore, & Nelson-Zlupko, 1995). Two studies found superior outcomes for women treated in specialized women’s programs vs. mixed gender programs (Dalhgren & Willander, 1989; UCLA Study, 2000). While two others found no differences (Copeland, Hall, Didcott, & Briggs, 1993; Dodge & Potocky-Tripodi, 2001), the Copeland team noted that the treatment program content had not been altered significantly to accommodate the specialized needs of women, only that it had female staff and women group members.

It is important that social workers be ever mindful that many addicted women struggle with additional guilt, shame and inadequacy as women and particularly, as mothers. Empathy, compassion, sensitivity, and respect are the cornerstones of any intervention practices involving women battling with addictions. Clinical work must include focused attention on women’s self-perceptions and their past and present life experiences. It is also important to recall that women face difficulties in participating in treatment: child care, basic access, and other gendered issues (DASIS, 2001).

Empowerment to change is derived from a strengths approach to assessment and treatment. Treatment of women experiencing problems related to alcohol abuse and dependence is a complicated task. It is important to recognize that women have unique aspects to their alcohol problems and to understand the complex interplay of biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors.

Only through effective recognition and treatment of gender concerns can we hope to interrupt the cycle of addiction, violence, and mental health problems facing a significant number of women in our society.